How to Live a Long Life

How to live a Long Life As technology and medicine evolve over time, the life expectancy in most countries is increasing. Here are a few additional ways of increasing the odds that you'll make it to that ripe old age of 85 and beyond. Steps 1. Eat healthy. Some health professionals will state that eating healthy is more important to your body than getting regular exercise. Indulge only when necessary and have a well-balanced diet. Read and understand â€Å"Nutrition Facts†. 2.Introduce regular exercise into your life. While most people lead quite busy lives, the benefits of exercise usually present themselves in all areas of your life. Gradually introducing exercise will lead to longer patterns of fitness rather than adopting a harsh workout regime each New Year's. 3. Develop a sleep schedule. It's not as important to get a certain number of hours of sleep; so much as it is to get the same amount of sleep, at the same time, day in and day out.Sleep gives your body a chance to heal and regenerate; having a stable sleeping routine will help your body take care of itself more easily. If you do not carry out successful sleep cycles over an extended period of time (48+ hours) you can seriously affect your physical and mental health. 4. Drink plenty of water. This universal solvent is a most effective weapon against toxins and many other violators. It flushes out your system like nothing else does. 5. Think first.This step includes looking both ways before you cross the street, as children are taught but many adults take it for granted, and wear protective gear when necessary; whether you're while riding a bike or skateboard, working on a construction site, or handling potentially harmful substances. While the human skull is quite thick and sturdy, severe head trauma can result from the brain being jostled around inside the skull from an impact, potentially resulting in permanent brain damage or even death. 6.Reduce stress in your life. By cutting stress or st ressful things in your life you can drastically change your life expectancy. The first way is through the direct, unhealthy effects of stress on your body in the long term. The second way stress may shorten your life expectancy is through the negative behaviors that being stressed triggers. These behaviors include comfort eating and smoking. Learn to relax through de-stressing techniques or meditation to keep your life expectancy up where it should be.

Summary Essay Globalisations Time Is Up

Summary of James Howard Kunstler’s â€Å"Globalisation’s Time Is Up† Within James Howard Kunstler’s article â€Å"Globalisation’s Time is Up† (Guardian Weekly, 12-18 August 2005), he goes against Thomas Friedman’s view that â€Å"globalisation is here to stay†(254), arguing that globalisation is rather unstable. With the supply of cheap resources and world peace, we have the formula for globalisation, subtract either and we are on a crash course. Kunstler builds on this theory by going over events, which time after time have all lead to the same solution.The period of 1870-1914 the â€Å"first phase of globalisation†(254) is described as the era of coal and steam power. This period brought hope; nations were tied together with booming trade, along with the abundant supplies of resources. The introduction of oil without a doubt would override the power of coal. This was closely followed with serious ramifications for those without oil, the First World War. Kunstler’s formula for globalisation proves to be correct in earlier days. Furthermore, the oil era is slowly approaching its demise. Also you can read this summary –  Protecting Freedom of Expression on the CampusIt has brought economies greatly dependent on its production power that we no longer see what will come of our â€Å"McHousing Estates†(255). The suburban housing along with all other oil dependent arrangements will cease to expand when the global oil production well dries up. â€Å"The American Suburban Juggernaut† (255), is Kunstler’s description of how America has misallocated its existence around the oil economy. With this being said he continues to support his theory, the bond of nations is now separating from one another simply to attain control of what oil remains in this world.The abused usage of the era, and the over usage of its resources has led America through a boom, one that will end with a bust leaving everyone scrambling for what is left. Kunstler ends his argument stating, â€Å"the world is about to become a larger place again†(256), we can take from his explanations that he is implying; the breakdown of local communities butchered by large chains, how shopping will simply fade away in the background of life, and the need for cars will be of little to no use. As a result all that had once become in the oil-short era will then restart a cycle known as globalisation.

Marrige vs Cohabitation

Marriage vs. Cohabitation There are many people that say that getting married before living together is the best way to go. They have many negative things to say about living together also called cohabitation. Linda J Waite is one of this people, she has many negative things to say about cohabitation. She wrote an article called â€Å"The Negative effects of Cohabitation† where she states many down sides of cohabitation which I disagree upon. The three main things that I disagree upon are domestic violence, emotional wellbeing, and wealth.When it comes to hitting, shoving and throwing things, â€Å"cohabiting couples are more than three times more likely than the married to say things get that far out of hand she says in her article. Which I disagree it doesn’t matter if your married or not your partner will still hit you. ‘According to the American association for marriage and family therapy (AAMFT)† in almost 20% of all marriage, couples slap, shove, hit, or otherwise assault each other. Emotional abuse verbal threats, humiliation, or degrading remarks, and controlling behavior are more common.Once you’re married you have to obey your husband’s rules and if we don’t there will be consequences. Married couples are more likely to be in domestic violence in my opinion because they expect more from there couples. Since there married they have to listen and do more to keep the husband happy. â€Å"Marriage is, by design and agreement for the long run. Married people, thus see their relationships as much more stable as cohabiting couples do. † I also disagree with this saying that Linda j. Waite states in her article. The reason why I disagree is because there are many divorce rates now and days.If it was true what she says then there won’t be so many divorce rates. She says states that married couples are happier than cohabitating couples. She also states that children who are in cohabitating couples ar e less likely to succeed and this is a big lie in my opinion. For example, what about if we get married and then we live together, then we realize that the person who we once dated isn’t the person we actually married. Then we realize that we don’t want to be with leading to divorce. In the other hand cohabitation helps you learn the good and bad things about your partner before we ask the question.This can lead to a healthier lovable relationship prior to the one where we get married first then get to learn the good and bad things about our partner. As prior to her statement about the children, I disagree because I have many friends that live with cohabitating families their parents are married. They still go to school and they are being successful. We can’t blame cohabitation to someone being unsuccessful. In fact many children with married families become unsuccessful do to their parent’s divorce. Married couples link their fates-including their financ es. Linda j .Waite states that married couples benefit more in income if there married which I disagree. In fact, cohabitation offers similar benefits to marriage without the potential pain of divorce. â€Å"If you're just living together and if one of you decides they want to leave†¦ † said one participant, â€Å"you can leave and it will just be OK †¦ whereas if you're married you've got to go through lawyers and attorneys, and depending on the type of situation it is it can be an ugly divorce. † So no if were married we do benefit more in wealth it will be the same benefit because couples actually decide to do cohabitation to share expenses . ttp://www. theatlantic. com/health/archive/2012/02/the-marriage-problem-why-many-are-choosing-cohabitation-instead/252505/ People get married because they’re afraid of being lonely for the rest of their lives. There not realizing that by rushing into marriage that they can end up having a divorced life. When yo u live in cohabitation you have the liberty to leave when you want no broken vows. So do we rather want to have a divorced life or be happy that’s the question to ask ourselves before getting married? http://www. gwu. edu/~ccps/rcq/rcq_negativeeffects_waite. html

Impact of Computers on Day-to-day Life Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Impact of Computers on Day-to-day Life - Essay Example Social networking is another area in which computers have changed peoples’ lifestyle. Many of the offline businesses were transformed to online businesses because of the abilities of computers in promoting e-businesses or e-commerce. Weather forecasting and global positioning systems are some of the other areas in which computers are used extensively nowadays. This paper analyses the impact of computers in day-to-day life. Business is one area, which gained a lot because of the introduction of computers. It should be noted that instant communication is made possible because of the introduction of computers and internet. Business always likes to have the exchange of information as quickly as possible in order to make sound decisions. Earlier, fax messages and telephonic conversations were used for business communications along with telephones. However, these technologies had many limitations in communicating the ideas properly between the stakeholders of business. The introduct ion of computers helped business people to present their ideas clearly to others. Computer controlled machinery is used a lot in many of the manufacturing units nowadays. This machinery has the ability to do provisioned work more efficiently than humans do. According to new figures released by the United States Department of Commerce, e-Commerce Sales accounted for 2.4% of all sales in the fourth quarter of 2005, up from 2.3% the previous quarter. Total fourth quarter e-commerce revenues came to a seasonally adjusted $22.94 billion. For all of 2005, e-commerce sales rose by 24.6% according to information from the U.S. Census Stats (Internet World Stats News) Earlier business activities were taking place only in the real world. Introduction of computers opened another channel for business in the virtual world. Many of the recent studies have shown that offline or virtual world business is going to surpass real world business in the near future. Computers have helped business people w ith another channel to market and provide their services. Education is another sector in which computers proved their worth. For effective transfer of knowledge from the teacher to students, computers are extensively used in classrooms at present. Computer assisted technologies are helping both the students and teachers to polish their ideas. For example, teachers can take notes from the internet before presenting a particular topic in the class. In the same way, exceptional students who are not satisfied with the classroom knowledge can look on the internet to get more knowledge. IPads and tablet PC’s are helping students to get rid of the inconvenience of carrying textbooks and notebooks to the classes. Teachers can assess the progress of the students with the help of computer software. In short, computers can help in the enhancement of quality of education. Social networking is the third segment in which computers are influencing people in their day-to-day life. The popula rity of Facebook, Google Plus, MySpace, Twitter etc clearly indicate the importance of computers in daily life. It should be noted that millions of people from all over the world are spending a substantial period of time in social networks nowadays. Apart from ordinary people, even business people, marketers, job seekers, etc are also interested in using social networks now. The concept of social networking would not be in place if the computer related technologies were not there. As mentioned

Business Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Business Marketing - Essay Example Among this two, the marketers mainly use the concept of adaption i.e. changing the product according to needs of the customers belonging to different countries as various major companies have failed due to use of the straight extension policy. One of such examples could be Google Inc. Google entered in the year 2007 and became one of the leading search engines in the Chinese market. However, Google had been using the same marketing mix in China also. The internet content in China was heavily censored by the government and soon the problems in the form of delays lead to customer dissatisfaction and Google started to lose market share. To make things worse for the company, Google started facing competition from local search engine company Baidu. Google tried to censor the contents but it turned out to be a bit too late and Google had to leave the country. This case shows how important the external environmental factors are important in case of international marketing and how neglecting those factors can lead to heavy prices (Czinzota, Ronkainen, Moffett, Marinova & Marinov, 2009, pp. 423-429). Answer-2 Intermediaries are the channel partners that help the marketers to reach out to customers. Intermediaries are mainly middle –men like wholesalers, retailer, etc (Kotler, 2001, p. 25). From the point of view of the marketers intermediaries are of great help when it comes to market expansion and customer reach. Intermediaries help the marketers to reach to different customers within a relatively short period of time. The intermediaries like wholesalers and retailers help the marketers in breaking the bulk and selling the end product to the customers. Without the help of the intermediaries it would be extremely difficult to reach to the customers on their own. Also sometimes intermediaries may actually have better knowledge of a certain section of the market as compared to the marketers. Hence the marketers can actually use the knowledge and expertise of the in termediaries to gain customer insights. Also in some cases the reputations of the intermediaries help the marketers in case of promoting the product. The importances of the intermediaries become even more important in international marketing. In case of international marketing the marketers operate in alien conditions. The brand awareness of the marketers in the international market is very low. Also the marketers have little insight and knowledge about the customers. If the marketers would look to invest directly in the market it could prove to be of great risks due to the facts mentioned above. Hence, most of the times the marketers look for joint ventures or strategic alliance with some local firms. These firms usually have good insights about the local market. This allows the company to use the marketing and sales of the local firm. In this way the intermediaries help the marketers in cost as well as in risk reduction (Henry, 2008, p. 89). One of the major concerns in case of th e use of the intermediaries for the marketers has been the issue off control. On numerous

Managing Across Cultures Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 7

Managing Across Cultures - Essay Example In this case then the managing across the different cultures should be professional without any discrimination drawn on the lines of culture. It is then common to find many news articles and other published materials addressing advocating for the effective management across cultures in all business organizations or companies. Therefore, the implications of business management and other aspects of culture in business decision making are mostly outlined in such articles. I found such an article with the title â€Å"Build on Your Strengths Instead of Focusing on Flaws.† In this article, Harjit Gill who is the chief executive of an electronics company based in Singapore gives his experience on how to manage the company with a team of employees with different cultures in order to meet the company’s objectives. As explained in Kolesnikov-Jessop (2014), Gill explains that a good manager is a person that is very transparent to others and someone that other people are always free to talk to and seek help from in case of any challenges or problems at the workplace. He explains that all these draw the line between a team leader and a team manager. This means that when it comes to managing and organization, one needs to ensure that that the team he is managing get to learn and step up from the level they are in. when it is about delegation of duties, an employee should be able to understand that decision made by the manger and identify how the decision is good for them and the whole organization. Gill also gives his experience while managing across cultures in the company. He says that one should generalize issues without considering the composition of the workforce and instead get to know the people well and the different cultural aspects in them (Kolesnikov-Jessop, 2014). It is important them to pull the different people into one team that can learn from each other by leveraging the differences in cultural traits of the

How Leadership and Team Working Might Improve the Career Prospects in Term Paper - 56

How Leadership and Team Working Might Improve the Career Prospects in the Field of Business Management - Term Paper Example Today’s modern organizations operate in an integrated economy that is highly competitive and demanding. This compels the organization to hire and retain employees who are multifaceted in terms of skill and knowledge would perform according to the level of competition that the business organization they are in.   Organizations would prefer employees who would already fit in the competitive world of business management and these employees are those who already have a wide range of knowledge in management issues such as leadership and team working because they already know the realities of business and is aware of what is expected from them. Thus it is imperative for employees to already have a wider knowledge in these management issues to improve their career prospect of being hired and promoted in a business organization when they graduate from college. This learning can begin right in the university as Cottrell advised students to determine early the purpose of their study i n the university to make it useful in life (2008). Employees who are already knowledgeable of wider management issues, such as leadership and team working already have the advantage over those who do not have them. This advantage is already apparent beginning at the hiring process. This means that employees who are already knowledgeable in a wide range of management issues such as leadership, teamwork, conflict resolution, project management already have a high learning curve that would make them effective in the job and could already be noticed during the hiring process.  Cottrell recommended active learning beginning in the university to become more effective in one’s professional life (2008) and the beginning of reckoning would be during the application process particularly during interview whereby interviewers will peer into the competence of applicants through a series of questions.        

Guns and school violence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Guns and school violence - Essay Example that any profile of a student shooter would fit too many students, since it has emerged that while some are children of divorcees, others are loners while still others are children of an ideal American family (Cavanaugh, et al, 317). However, the fundamental aspect of the Guns and school violence is the fact that; as opposed to the act of shooting the students being a snap action, the acts of shooting other students have been found to be premeditated and planned, since the student shooters were found to acquire the weapons well in advance, and even follow a considerable public path of violence (Redding and Sarah, 297). While some of the student shooters were found to plan their acts quietly, others were found to make their plans well known over a period of time, through consistent threats that eventually turn into the actualization of the violent act of shooting. The major concern is the motivating factors that drive the gun violence to increase at such a significant rate in schools. While it is worrying to think that guns can find way into schools and be used for violence perpetration, the truth is that the case is affirmative, and the incidences are even higher than could be anticipated. In fact, such occurrences have made many students and parents fear schools, preferring to undertake their learning at homes or in different private settings. According to the indicators of school crime and safety 2011 report by the Bureau of Justice Statistics, 6% of high school students in the USA stayed home for the feeling of being insecure either at school or on their way to school (Cavanaugh, et al, 322). This fact serves to indicate how the gun and school violence have affected the education sector in the USA, and it is threatening to paralyze public learning, especially in areas where crimes and gang violence are rampant. The report also indicated that around 7% of students in school between 9th and 12th grade admitted to have been threatened with a weapon within the

BEHAVIOURAL FINANCE Literature review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

BEHAVIOURAL FINANCE - Literature review Example Thus, there is a need for a new economic paradigm that can enhance the economic condition of all countries. The literature lays stress upon different views of the scholars and researchers related to the current topic. It is observed that few of these scholars are in favour of the idea, whereas others have directly opposed the same. Presently, there is a great need for change as individuals perceive that economic, social and environmental shifts are necessary. The global population is increasing at an alarming rate accompanied by an extraordinary improvement in life expectancy worldwide. Innovations made in the technological industry have enabled the people to learn and communicate essential information on a global level. The inequality between poor and rich countries has continued to grow with the passage of time. The demand for natural resources has increased and climate changes are more frequent than ever. The main issue related to the world economy is the most severe one. Apart from the abovementioned difficulties, the economic paradigm is also questioned as the world economy is heading towards a decline (Reza, 1999). The economic condition worsened as the blame game persisted so as to identify the one responsible for the economic downturn and recession. Primarily, the blame was put on the financial managers who had failed to identify and manage risk appropriately and even the regulators did not stop them from undertaking any fraudulent activity. The economic strategy devised for promoting growth was inadequate. Businesses and governments had stated the need for a new economic paradigm, which can facilitate sustenance of the environment. New Economics Movement had rapidly grown over the past few years. New Economics Foundation and The Other Economic Summit formed a part of the movement. It had clearly identified that the present economic model is

The Pros And Cons of Boot Camps Essay Example for Free

The Pros And Cons of Boot Camps Essay Boot Camps came into prominence in the 1980s. It was initially conceived as an effective tool for resolving behavioral problems of teens. This approach was derived from the military style of correcting the behavior of erring members of the military. Boot Camps are short programs that may last from 3 to 6 months. The youth offender is housed in a facility along with other youth offenders. This paper will delve on the effects, pros and cons, and background of juvenile boot camps. The Pros And Cons of Boot Camps An Overview of Boot Camps Juvenile delinquency is one of the more glaring issues facing the youth of today. At present, the number of juvenile defenders all over the world has grown into alarming proportions. Juvenile delinquency takes place during adolescence, a period which is marked by a transition from childhood to adulthood. At this stage of their lives, they start to become independent and away from the guidance of their parents. Although the youth is acknowledged as the holder of the key to the future, it is a sad fact that most adolescents are now confronted by many issues that can put their future in peril – violence, drug abuse, prostitution. Juvenile delinquency is regarded as more of a social than political problem. It stems from various factors such as peer pressure and family influence. However, realizing that there is a need to help these youth offenders, the government has stepped in and implemented several measures by setting up facilities that will save the future of these young people. What are Boot Camps? Otherwise known as â€Å"shock incarceration,† boot camps became prevalent in the 1980s. The concept was patterned after the military boot camps and was grounded on the principle of using military discipline in shaping youth offenders to become productive members of the society. Compared to the overcrowded detention centers, boot camps offered reduced per-bed cost (Hanusa, 2006). Boot camps are facilities that are designed to reform delinquents by employing a military type of correction. The main purpose of these boot camps is to teach the delinquent how to respect authority, adhere to rules, and shape up their behavior at home and school. In these facilities, therapy and psychological intervention is non-existent. Instead, military exercises, discipline, and rigid physical training are used to reform the offender (Boot Camps Info, n. d. ). There are many kinds of boot camps. Some of them are run by the state as an alternative for juvenile jail. Others are privately owned with tight security. Guards are placed in boot camps for no reason than to make sure that the inmates will follow the rules. The punishment for breaking the guidelines in the facility includes extended runs and obstacle courses. The idea of boot camps is to break the â€Å"spirit† of the adolescent and lead to corrective actions (Boot Camps Info, n. d. ). The History of Boot Camps Due to the increasing number of adolescent youths who got imprisoned in the last ten years, as well as the different opinions regarding the role that punishment and treatment play in correcting offenders, boot camps have emerged as an alternative to incarceration. Boot camps started in Georgia in 1983. Since then, they have expanded to twenty five states and have gained fame for their military-type approach. In a survey spearheaded by the General Accounting Office, it was revealed that during its first ten years, there were 29 boot camps offering their programs in 29 states with a total population of 10,065. Since then, Michigan and Texas have shown a drop in their population. New York and Georgia own the largest boot camps in the country. Their combined population comprises fifty percent of the national total (Parent, 2003). While the focus of first-generation boot camps centered on the military-type approach involving â€Å"discipline, physical training, and hard work,† second-generation facilities utilized rehabilitation through â€Å"alcohol and drug treatment† (Parent, 2003). Likewise, second-generation boot camps introduced new treatment methods such as pro-social skills training, electronic monitoring, and home confinement, to name a few. By the middle of the 1990s, boot camps existing in the country started to decline. At the dawn of the 21st century, only 51 boot camps are left operating. Likewise, the population of boot camp inmates has considerably dropped more than 30 percent. Reasons Behind Boot Camps Because of the escalating number of youth offenders in the United States, more and more states are now setting up boot camps. These facilities take the place of youth correctional facilities. Most of them adopt the military type of approach in improving the behavior and attitude of the youth offender. They use physical training and conditioning and follow a structured program. However, it is interesting to note that these facilities or barracks are not entirely for problem teenagers. There are facilities designed for the youth without any criminal record. They are no different from other camps, except that they follow strict procedures. How Do Boot Camps Work? Boot camps are patterned after military-type minimum-security prisons. The conditions are not similar to a regular prison facility and the duration of stay is much shorter which could range from three to six months. While majority of the strategy are modeled after military training, juvenile boot camps vary considerably with a standard prison set-up. These facilities provide â€Å"intermediate sanction† in the jargon of juvenile justice. The punishment in a boot camp is more restrictive compared to probation, but not as severe as imprisonment or detention (Begin, 2002). Boot camps in the United States accept male and female delinquents between 17 to 25 years old. Some inmates were admitted to the program through the â€Å"back door† (Begin, 2002). They were chosen by correctional officers from other offenders who were sentenced to serve a regular prison term. Other inmates came from the â€Å"front door† after the court sentenced them to one term in a boot camp (Begin, 2002). When the offender has already completed their sentence, boot camp officials would determine the method of after-care support that the community would provide. Offenders would either receive regular probation, intensive probation supervision, or electronic monitoring (Begin, 2006). The Effects of Boot Camps According to a study conducted by the Washington State Institute for Public Policy and the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, there is no evidence that boot camps indeed reduce the rate of recidivism. Usually, staying in a boot camp is much cheaper than detention in a juvenile center. However, the amount of money that will be saved by the offender will be determined by the length of sentence, which is commonly shorter than incarceration (Hanusa, 2006). Boot camps have shown both positive and negative effects on the individual. The approach in boot camps is simple and that is reward for good work and punishment for violations. Most of the inmates admitted in boot camps are troubled teenagers who are either drop outs in the school where they are studying or teens who have behavior problems at home (Troubled Teens Guide, n. d. ). The concept of boot camps started in the military. All the major sectors of the armed forces run their own boot camp programs. In the military, the purpose of these facilities is to train new recruits in several aspects such as physical conditioning, using weapons, comradeship, being a leader, and others. The participants of the boot camps stay in the facility for two weeks without sleep, communication, and food. Aside from that, the participants are made to live in diverse conditions in order to test how far they can go (Tobey, 2006). Since the inmate experience a new environment and share the facility with other participants, they learn to adapt themselves with the new surrounding away from the company of previous friends, old habits and behaviors. Since the old environment has disappeared from their system, the inmate starts to incorporate new attitudes and behaviors. Likewise, he or she learns to mingle with a new set of friends. This is a positive aspect of boot camps (Troubled Teens Guide, n. d. ). The MacKenzie Study Recognized as the most intensive and systematic study on the effects of boot camps, Doris MacKenzie conducted a research in 1994. It incorporated programs which emphasized on supplementary programming and increased supervision when released. The research utilized control groups to make way for comparison of effects in connection with other sanctions. Likewise, the study measured recidivism in order to determine its effects on the attitude and behavior of the community (Bilchik, 1997). The MacKenzie-Souryal study reached the following findings: 1. Although the boot camp participants concluded their term with a positive result compared to standard inmates, there was no difference between the participants and sample population as to objectively measuring the changes towards anti-social behavior while serving their term (Bilchik, 1997). 2. Boot camp graduates had a hard time coping up with community assistance when looking for a job, pursuing an education, finding a home, or being financially secured and treated (Bilchik, 1997). Even though they served their sentence in the boot camps, the amount of recidivism in the United States did not decrease. In the three states were the incidence of recidivism reflected a drop in the rate, the program centered on rehabilitation and intensive supervision upon release ((Bilchik, 1997). In addition, the Mackenzie study proved that boot camps contribute to the possibility of extending incarceration if the charge is life imprisonment in order to take part in the boot camp program. Using intensive supervision after completion of sentence will most likely lead to re-incarceration ((Bilchik, 1997). National Institute of Justice A team of six researchers under the National Institute of Justice also conducted their own study (Bourque, Cronin, Pearson, Felker, Han, Hill, 1996). The research involves three demonstration boot camp projects for young re-offenders aged 15 to 18 years old. Likewise, they evaluated boot camp inmates who are in the after-case program. No control groups or long-term follow up were provided to the survey participants. After the study, it was revealed that although there were promising results at the end of boot camp, the programs used in the study reflected increased rates of attrition as a result of non-compliance, absenteeism, and re-offense while in the aftercare phase (Bourque, Cronin, Pearson, Felker, Han, Hill, 1996). . Moreover, the NIJ study yielded the following findings: 1) With careful planning and implementation, boot camp programs will be able to meet their desired goal (Bourque, et al. , 1996). 2) The success rate of first year boot camps were high ranging between 80 percent and 94 percent (Bourque, et al. , 1996). 3) The boot camp programs involved in the study showed a marked improvement in the educational performance, overall behavior, and physical fitness of the inmates. Likewise, the rate of improvement in the aspect of self-discipline, respect for authority, personal appearance, and teamwork (Bourque, et al. , 1996). 4) Inmates who completed the boot camp program within 3-months and continued to receive supervision from the program for a minimum of 5 months showed positive improvement in their attitude and behavior (Bourque, et al. , 1996). 5) Boot camps are most likely more affordable than prisons found in the State or local prison facilities (Bourque, et al. , 1996). During the early part of the 1990s, some boot camp programs started taking in female inmates. However, a study conducted in 1992 revealed that since these facilities were programmed to admit men, accepting female inmates can become a dilemma. The study revealed the following findings about female inmates (Bourque, et al. , 1996, p. 3): †¢ They face the possibility of becoming single parents †¢ They are prone to experiencing physical or sexual abuse †¢ They are inclined to exhibit a different â€Å"history and pattern of drug use† (Bourque, et al. , 1996, p. 3) †¢ They face the possibility of becoming out of job after discharge from the boot camp What Boot Camp Proponents Say Despite of the many questions that the opponents of boot camp hurl at the program, people who are in favor of boot camps as a correction method raise several points that will prove that this kind of program helps participants become productive members of society upon their release from the camp. In her article, Hanusa (2006) stated some of the arguments in support of the program: 1. The atmosphere pervading in the camp is ideal for fostering positive growth and change (Hanusa, 2006). 2. The program structure and control personnel foster a secured atmosphere where fighting between inmates would be avoided and would not fall victims of other youths than when they are in regular correctional centers (Hanusa, 2006). 3. The addition of military structure can foster camaraderie as well as respect for staff (Hanusa, 2006). What Critics Say About Boot Camps On the other hand, critics of the program also raised several arguments about boot camps: 1. The confrontational nature of boot camps violates the kind of positive interpersonal relationships that the offender needs in order to achieve positive growth. They claim that this is against the aim of therapeutic treatment. The stringent policies implemented by the camp may cause the inmates to develop fear against the personnel of the camp (Hanusa, 2006). 2. The boot camps focus on group activities does not provide room for addressing individual problems of the youth (Hanusa, 2006). According to Susan Colling, a former juvenile programs Director in Colorado, one of the reasons why boot camps are a failure is because it does not provide aftercare assistance. An inmate may do well inside the boot camp but once they graduate from the program and sent back to their community, they will most likely find a hard time coping up with the new situation because they got used to an environment that is controlled and structured (Hanusa, 2006).

Brain-Imaging Techniques for Cognitive Functions Analysis

Brain-Imaging Techniques for Cognitive Functions Analysis Using examples of fMRI, explain how researchers use brain-imaging techniques and discuss what, if anything, these techniques can tell us about cognitive functions. Here is introduced the method of fMRI, how imaging data is gained and at what cost is involved in getting it. Further to this the experimental designs are discussed and how these might add to the toolbox available to the experimental psychologist. A study will be looked at, which has used fMRI imaging to add to the existing knowledge and psychological theories that exist around memory. Last of all some areas of concern are looked at as the structure-function data will continue to grow and expand. Before the use of imaging methods, such as that of fMRI and PET scanning, as Naish (2010) points out, it was possible to discover whether certain parts of the brain were responsible for certain cognitive functions. There were problems with this, often relying on accidental legions meant the more than one function could be damaged or it produced inconsistent findings. Lack of clear resolution resulted in the patient being tested through their life to only discover the underlying neurological damage after death. Kaye (2010) highlights a common critique that the current use of imaging techniques does not provide cognitive psychologists with much. The simple structure-to-function mapping does not improve our understanding of cognitive theories. This has been challenged in Henson’s (2005) review of Tulving (1985) ‘remember’ or ‘know’ memory experiment with the use of fMRI methods. Still, it is important to explore the way that imaging methods work for cont inuing psychological understanding. MRI and to an extent also PET imaging works based on the idea that when a cognitive task is being undertaken both glucose and oxygen will be carried to those area(s) of the brain, which requires it significantly over than that of resting or less activate areas (Johnsrude and Hauk 2010). The imaging technique is sensitive to that increased blood flow and that according to Johnsrude and Hauk (2010) this is used to study the functioning of the brain. This is often known as regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF): alongside this the level of oxygen that is left in blood can also be looked at known as the blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) contrast, as deoxyhaemoglobin and oxyhaemoglobin produce different magnetic fields (Johnsrude and Hauk, 2010). Although there are some methodological problems with this, such as the lag between neural processing and increased blood flow, it is argued that with the correct design and computer analysis such problems can be dealt with (Henson, 2005). Function al MRI over PET is less intrusive in the sense that more participants can be involved, be studied over a longer time and it is generally easier to maintain. This is due to PET requiring the participant being injected with a radioactive substance which because of health issues rules out who can take part and how many times each participant can undergo PET imaging (Johnsrude and Hauk, 2010). Functional MRI has become the choice of many experimental psychologists. Johnsrude and Hauk (2010) also highlight other issues that make fMRI difficult, but not impossible, the first that the machine itself makes a lot of noise to the extent it can cause hearing damage, it can be constricting and participants cannot move their heads while imaging is taking place. Those with anxiety issues, for example, will find fMRI studies very difficult to take part in but when participants move their heads computers can adjust the images to match up with earlier ones and ear plugs can be worn. Johnsrude and Hauk (2010) present two types of experimental design. Subtractive designs such as that used by Klein et al (1995, cited and explored by Johnsrude and Hauk 2010) is based on the assumption that [cognitive] tasks can be broken down and by adding an additional task between two tasks, the extra load can be subtracted from the two tasks. This allows the extra task to be measured and Klein et al (1995) followed this design. Using native English speakers who later in life learned French, these participants were asked in either language to either repeat the heard word or create a synonym for that word. Speech perception and production would always have to be used, but when asked to create a synonym it would also involve semantic association and word retrieval (cited by Johnsrude and Hauk, 2010). Klein et al (1995) subtracted speech perception and production, allowing them to solely study semantic association and retrieval. They found activation in the prefrontal cortex, perhaps indicating the importance of this region in processing word meaning and response selection. Further to this activation in the basal ganglia in the French synonym task which is linked to motor action a previous known process. The second type of design is that of correlations which Johnsrude and Hauk (2010) highlight as examining the relationship between a presented stimulus or behavioural response along with the associated brain activity. They are relatively simpler than subtractive designs avoiding the interpretation or subtraction of tasks. For example, cognitive states can be examined so signal change in one area can be predictive of activity somewhere else in the brain. If the two areas correlate it could be assumed they are part of the same neural network for the cognitive function either directly or through another region. In this case it is not simple structure-to-function but rather exploring the areas of the brain that are required to perform one cognitive task. Adding or reducing theoretical components to such cognitive tasks. It could be argued that subtractive designs look for differences within known theoretical connected functions, whereas correlational designs look for explorative patterns without assuming such a strong known function-to-structure relationship. Henson (2005) distinguishes between two types of imaging inferences the first function-to-structure deduction and the other structure-to-function induction. The first inference is that of deduction, if one condition activates area one and the second condition activates area two it would be possible to assume that these two different conditions activate different areas within the brain. It does not matter which areas of the brain are activated only that there is a qualitative difference. In terms of function-structure mapping at the psychological function level according to Henson (2005) the only assumption is that the same psychological function (or task) will not give rise to different activation patterns within the brain. For function-to-structure induction the areas of the brain activated are important for each presented condition. Henson (2005) goes on to explain for each presented condition the same area of the brain is activated which can lead to experiments which conditions use the same area of the brain to explain that a certain area of the brain has more than one function but can operate differently depending on the processing task. Rather than there being a disassociation that you would find in deduction there is an association, Henson (2005) argues that in most cases the null hypothesis, therefore has to be accepted, although at the same time this could suggest the abilities and/or limitations of that area of the brain thus results in limitations of that cognitive ability and task. Through psychological manipulations it can be shown that there is a reliable regional dissociations (Henson, 2005). One experiment as mentioned above is that of the remember/know memory experiment that also uses function-structure deduction. The importance of this fMRI study is that it takes psychological theory and determines what the processes are occurring. This experiment presented by Henson (2005) and others is based around the argument that there is either a single-process model such as that presented by Donaldson (1996, cited by Henson, 2005) or a dual-process. Using Tulving (1985, cited by Henson, 2005) participants are asked to indicate if they have seen a stimulus previously and whether they think this because they remember the encounter (remember) or they just think the stimulus seems familiar (know). It was found that within the remember condition the left hemisphere was more responsive while the in the know condition other regions such as the right prefrontal cortex were more activated. The conclusion is that the imaging data support a dual-processing model over the single-process model. Functional MRI imaging was helpful here as behavioural findings could not agree and the debate was in part helped by imaging data. Both deduction and induction results in the function-structure mapping according to Henson (2005). It is important to follow the logic of Henson that imaging data is useful within itself for providing another dependent variable, such is the case if reaction time is being recorded alongside imaging data, that imaging data would provide additional information such as right/left activation of the motor cortex (Henson, 2005). This might not be relevant in all contexts, still it can provide information which could be necessary to the research if that research included or required such information. This is described as function-structure mapping. Henson (2005) argues that the systematic function-structure is an assumption, for deductive areas of the brain to perform certain functions whereas for induction a strong sense of systematicity is necessary. In this case there may be a function that depends on co-activation with at least one, perhaps more regions. In this case a network is what is being observed activated within a condition. Through subtraction analysis, it allows for this test of a ‘neural network’ and McIntosh (1999, cited in Henson, 2005) the function of the area or region of the brain depends on its interaction with other regions (Henson, 2005, referred to this as hot-wiring). Adding to this there might be an activation of a region or area which does produce suppression of other areas or regions. Nelson (2005) calls for the redundancy of networks, to summarize this within a brain damaged patient, it might be that although the function-structure mapping is incorrect for this person. There might be a d ifferent function-structure mapping present. Henson (2005) counter-argues for this position to say that if through trial to trial or from many experiments, it would not be observed that there are reliable or reproducible activations. Most psychologists are also content with the idea that there is a hierarchy of abstraction of functions. For example, visual perception occurs within a region which is divisible into sub-functions. Where colour, form perception and motion perception can occur (Nelson, 2005). However, there is agreement that there needs to be a one-to-one mapping or function-mapping before one can infer structure to function. Henson (2005) calls this the structure-to-function induction, the usefulness of this approach or paradigm will have to stand up by its success or failure. Henson (2005) further argues the fMRI is a recent invention, the computer mapping even so, with such new areas of technology it has to prove itself to be of benefit. So even if mapping critics have a point it will perhaps be years before the value of imaging technique come to be very useful. Currently they can be useful, though by using existing completing cognitive theories which can be settled using imaging data with caution. For Henson (2005) imaging data simply comprise another dependent variable along with behavioural data that can be used to test competing theories. Imaging can determine the circumstance under which a tactile stimulus produces activity in the visual cortex give clues about the mechanisms of sensory integration that are not provided by behavioural data alone (Henson, 2005). There are criticisms of using imaging data, one produced by Coltheart (2004, cited in Henson, 2005) that understanding the hardware does not mean that we then reach an understanding of the neuro software. Henson (2005) argues that it does provide information on performance and on the distribution of the processes while the software is performing. To finally say that once you have the performance data, through behavioural data, the knowledge of the hardware this then can tell you something about software (Henson, 2005). Henson (2005) argues that neuroimaging data can be informative to the experimental psychologist, although there is perhaps too much excitement around such data. No other technique comes close to this ideal of measuring brain activity, if we assume that ideal is measuring activity simultaneously the activity of many individual neurons, we currently are not there but MRI is the best that we currently have. This is still a developing technology, it may in future years wit h advances it can become something quite special. Functional MRI is a relatively safe method and it can be used to replace the more traditional method in the Neuropsychology of relying on accidental brain legions to discover the link between psychological function and structure. The two methods mentioned above, that of subtractive and correlational designs allows for the more traditional dissociations along with associations of areas or regions of the brain. Although fMRI does not study the neural activity directly it is currently one of the best methods for studying activity at levels of relatively high resolution. Still fMRI is relatively new and the computing software more so, so it is likely that in years to come these technologies will improve. This is not to say that such imaging should be a replacement for more traditional methods, above the example of the Remember/Know experiment imaging extends or made clear the already present psychological models. The mainstay of cognitive psychology is behavioural data and imaging should be used alongside. To what Henson argued that imaging data as another dependent variable. This is to say that it won’t always be appropriate to use imaging data still there is excitement about imaging data and as it improves it will become yet another useful tool in the experimental psychologist toolbox. Word count: 2204 References: Naish, P. (2010) Perceptual Processed in: Kaye (2010) ‘Cognitive psychology’ ed, The Open University, Milton Keynes Kaye, H. (2010) Foundations of cognitive psychology in Kaye (2010) ‘Cognitive Psychology’ ed, The Open University, Milton Keynes. Johnsrude, I. S. and Hauk, O. (2010) Neuroimaging: techniques for examining human brain function, ed in: Kaye (2010) ‘Cognitive psychology: methods companion, The Open University, Milton Keynes. Henson, R. (2005) What can functional neuroimaging tell us the experimental psychologist? The quarterly journal of experimental psychology, Issue 58A, pp. 193-233 Lewis Karl Flood